Stray Dogs (Mongrels) Are Potent Reservoir of Drug-Resistant Pathogens: A Study in Peri-Urban Areas of Kolkata, India.

This study depicts the drug-resistance and phylogenomic characteristics of 365 Escherichia coli (EC) and 76 Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP) isolated from stray dogs (293) in and around Kolkata, India. Initial screening found 59 isolates, including 48 E. coli and 11 KP multidrug resistant, which included 33 extended-spectrum ß-lactamase, 41 AmpC ß-lactamase and 18 metallo-ß-lactamase producers carrying blaNDM-1 (11) and blaNDM-5 (7) genes. Majority of them had the resistant genes such as blaCTX-M (33), blaTEM (18), blaSHV (4), blaOXA (17), blaFOX (2), blaDHA (2), blaCITM (15), blaCMY-2 (13), blaGES (2) and blaVEB (2), qnrS (15), qnrB (3), aac-6'-Ib-cr (14), tetA (26), tetB (14), sul-1 (25), armA (2) and rmtB (6), in addition to adherence genes such as csgA (33), fimA (27), fliC (13), sdiA (33), rcsA (38), and rpoS (39). They also carried plasmid of diverse replicon types of which IncFIA and FIB were the most frequent. Phylogrouping categorized most of the MDR E. coli in phylogroup A (20), B1 (14), and B2 (6). Enterobacteriaceae repetitive intergenic consensus-polymerase chain reaction (ERIC-PCR) showed genetic diversity of multidrug resistant isolates irrespective of their origin, resistance, and virulence types, differentiating the EC in five clades (A-E) and KP in four clades (A-D). As these stray dogs, which had no history or scope of previous antimicrobial therapy, were found to have contracted potential antimicrobial resistance pathogens, the role of environment in spread of such pathogens and further possibility of human infections cannot be ruled out.

Salmonella enterica serovars linked with poultry in India: antibiotic resistance profiles and carriage of virulence genes.

Salmonella is an important poultry pathogen with zoonotic potential. Being a foodborne pathogen, Salmonella-contaminated poultry products can act as the major source of infection in humans. In India, limited studies have addressed the diversity of Salmonella strains of poultry origin. This study represented 26 strains belonging to Salmonella serovars Typhimurium, Infantis, Virchow, Kentucky, and Agona. The strains were tested for resistance to 14 different antimicrobial agents using the Kirby-Bauer disk-diffusion assay. The presence of the invA, hilA, agfA, lpfA, sopE, and spvC virulence genes was assessed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the genetic diversity was assessed by Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus Polymerase Chain Reaction (ERIC-PCR). The highest resistance to tetracycline (n = 17; 65.38%) followed by nalidixic acid (n = 16; 61.53%) was detected among the strains. Among the strains (n = 17) phenotypically resistant to tetracycline, 94% (n = 16) were also positive for the tetA gene. Based on the presence of virulence genes, the strains were characterized into three virulence profiles (PI, P2, and P3). Among the investigated virulence genes, invA, hilA, agfA, and lpfA were present in all strains. The sopE gene was mostly associated with serovars Virchow (n = 3; 100%) and Typhimurium (n = 8; 80%), whereas spvC gene was exclusive for two Typhimurium strains that lacked sopE gene. ERIC-PCR profiling indicated clusters correlating their serovar, geographical, and farm origins. These results demonstrate that Salmonella isolates with a wide genetic range, antibiotic resistance, and virulence characteristics can colonize poultry. The presence of such strains is crucial for both food safety and public health.

In vitro virulotyping, antifungal susceptibility testing and DNA fingerprinting of Microsporum canis strains of canine and feline origin.

Microsporum canis is considered the common dermatophyte agent associated with ringworm in felines and canines. In the present study, we sampled n = 548 felines and canines for the probable isolation of M. canis. The rate of isolation from the cats and dogs was 70.27 % (52/74) and 1.68 % (8/474), respectively and Persian cats were found to be highly susceptible to M. canis infection. The strains were evaluated for their production of phospholipase, lipase, catalase, and hemolysis and their ability to grow at 35 â„ƒ. All the strains were identified as low producers of catalase and n = 17 strains exhibited high thermotolerance ability. Terbinafine was found to be the most effective antifungal drug and fluconazole was the least effective, in vitro. AFLP analysis revealed three genotypes of M. canis with 15 sub-clusters showing ≥ 90 % similarity and 7 sub-clusters exhibiting 100 % similarity. However, the phenotypic characters cannot be attributed based on the AFLP profiles.

Is bovine density and ownership associated with human tuberculosis in India?

Zoonotic tuberculosis in humans is caused by infection with bacteria of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex acquired from animals, most commonly cattle. India has the highest burden of human tuberculosis in the world and any zoonotic risk posed by tuberculosis in bovines needs to be managed at the source of infection as a part of efforts to end human tuberculosis. Zoonotic tuberculosis in humans can be severe and is clinically indistinguishable from non-zoonotic tuberculosis. As a consequence, zoonotic tuberculosis remains under-recognised and the significance of its contribution to human tuberculosis is poorly understood. This study aimed to explore any association between bovine density, bovine ownership, and human tuberculosis reporting in India using self-reported tuberculosis data in households and officially reported tuberculosis cases while controlling for common confounders for human tuberculosis. We find an association between human tuberculosis reporting, bovine density and bovine ownership in India. Buffalo density was significantly associated with an increased risk of self-reported tuberculosis in households (odds ratio (OR) = 1.23 (95% credible interval (CI): 1.10-1.39) at household level; incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 1.17 (95% CI: 1.04-1.33) at district level), while cattle density (OR = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.71-0.89; IRR = 0.78, 95% CI: 0.70-0.87) and ownership of bovines in households (OR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.9-0.99; IRR = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.57-0.79) had a protective association with tuberculosis reporting. It is unclear whether this relates to differences in tuberculosis transmission dynamics, or perhaps an association between bovines and other unexplored confounders for tuberculosis reporting in humans. Our study highlights a need for structured surveillance to estimate the prevalence of tuberculosis in cattle and buffaloes, characterisation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex species present in bovines and transmission analyses at the human-animal interface to better assess the burden and risk pathways of zoonotic tuberculosis in India.

Emergence of Mycobacterium orygis-Associated Tuberculosis in Wild Ruminants, India.

Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium orygis was detected in 2 spotted deer from a wildlife sanctuary in western India and an Indian bison from a national park in central India. Nationwide surveillance is urgently required to clarify the epidemiology of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex at the human-livestock-wildlife interface.

Antimicrobial Resistance Pattern, Clustering Mechanisms and Correlation Matrix of Drug-Resistant Escherichia coli in Black Bengal Goats in West Bengal, India.

A cross-sectional study covering four agro-climatic zones of West Bengal, India, was carried out to understand the risk-factors, antimicrobial resistance mechanism and clustering of the resistance characteristics of Escherichia coli isolated from healthy (170) and diarrhoeic (74) goats reared under intensive (52) and semi-intensive (192) farming practices. Of the 488 E. coli isolates, the majority, including the extended spectrum (n: 64, 13.11%) and AmpC ß-lactamase (ACBL) (n: 86, 17.62%) producers, were resistant to tetracycline (25.2%), followed by enrofloxacin (24.5%), cefotaxime (21.5%) and amikacin (20.5%). Statistical modelling revealed that the isolates from diarrhoeic animals (p < 0.001) are likely to be more ACBL-positive than those from the healthy counterparts. Similarly, cefotaxime (p < 0.05) and enrofloxacin-resistance (p < 0.01) were significantly higher in diarrhoeic goats and in goats reared intensively. The isolates (n = 35) resistant to multiple drugs revealed the presence of ß-lactamase [blaCTXM-1-(21), blaSHV-(7), blaTEM-(3), blaCMY-6-(1), blaCITM-(3)]; quinolone [qnrB-(10), qnrS-(7), aac(6')-Ib-cr-(3)]; tetracycline [tetA-(19), tetB-(4)] and sulphonamide resistance determinants [sul1-(4)]; multiple plasmids, especially those belonging to the IncF and IncI1 replicon types; and active acrAB efflux pumps. Further, two isolates harbored the carbapenem resistance (blaNDM-5) gene and eight were strong biofilm producers. This first ever study conducted to unravel the status of AMR in goat farming reveals that not only the intensive farming practices but also certain clinical ailments such as diarrhoea can increase the shedding of the drug-resistant isolate. The emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) E. coli in goats, particularly those that are carbapenem resistant, is a cause for concern that indicates the spread of such pathogens even in the livestock sub-sector generally considered as naive.

Corrigendum: A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Vaccination Against Bovine Tuberculosis: Is Perfect the Enemy of Good?

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.637580.].

Edible Mushrooms as Functional Ingredients for Development of Healthier and More Sustainable Muscle Foods: A Flexitarian Approach.

Consumers are increasingly interested in nutritious, safe and healthy muscle food products with reduced salt and fat that benefit their well-being. Hence, food processors are constantly in search of natural bioactive ingredients that offer health benefits beyond their nutritive values without affecting the quality of the products. Mushrooms are considered as next-generation healthy food components. Owing to their low content of fat, high-quality proteins, dietary fibre and the presence of nutraceuticals, they are ideally preferred in formulation of low-caloric functional foods. There is a growing trend to fortify muscle food with edible mushrooms to harness their goodness in terms of nutritive, bioactive and therapeutic values. The incorporation of mushrooms in muscle foods assumes significance, as it is favourably accepted by consumers because of its fibrous structure that mimics the texture with meat analogues offering unique taste and umami flavour. This review outlines the current knowledge in the literature about the nutritional richness, functional bioactive compounds and medicinal values of mushrooms offering various health benefits. Furthermore, the effects of functional ingredients of mushrooms in improving the quality and sensory attributes of nutritionally superior and next-generation healthier muscle food products are also highlighted in this paper.

A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Vaccination Against Bovine Tuberculosis: Is Perfect the Enemy of Good?

More than 50 million cattle are likely exposed to bovine tuberculosis (bTB) worldwide, highlighting an urgent need for bTB control strategies in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and other regions where the disease remains endemic and test-and-slaughter approaches are unfeasible. While Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) was first developed as a vaccine for use in cattle even before its widespread use in humans, its efficacy against bTB remains poorly understood. To address this important knowledge gap, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the direct efficacy of BCG against bTB challenge in cattle, and performed scenario analyses with transmission dynamic models incorporating direct and indirect vaccinal effects ("herd-immunity") to assess potential impact on herd level disease control. The analysis shows a relative risk of infection of 0.75 (95% CI: 0.68, 0.82) in 1,902 vaccinates as compared with 1,667 controls, corresponding to a direct vaccine efficacy of 25% (95% CI: 18, 32). Importantly, scenario analyses considering both direct and indirect effects suggest that disease prevalence could be driven down close to Officially TB-Free (OTF) status (<0.1%), if BCG were introduced in the next 10-year time period in low to moderate (<15%) prevalence settings, and that 50-95% of cumulative cases may be averted over the next 50 years even in high (20-40%) disease burden settings with immediate implementation of BCG vaccination. Taken together, the analyses suggest that BCG vaccination may help accelerate control of bTB in endemic settings, particularly with early implementation in the face of dairy intensification in regions that currently lack effective bTB control programs.

Companion Animals Emerged as an Important Reservoir of Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae: A Report from India.

The emergence and spread of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) are perceived as a serious public-health threat world-wide. Despite sporadic reports, no systemic study has been carried out on CRE in companion animals in Indian subcontinent. In total, 237 canine specimens collected from five veterinary polyclinics in and around Kolkata were analyzed for isolation, antimicrobial resistance profiling and molecular characterization of carbapenem-resistant (CR) E. coli. Of the 29 CR isolates, 19 were identified as metallo-ß-lactamase producers (MP-CRE) and 10 as metallo-ß-lactamase non-producers (MNP-CRE). Eleven of them were extended spectrum ß-lactamase and/or AmpC type ß-lactamase producers and harboured fluoroquinolone-, tetracycline-, sulfonamide- and aminoglycoside-resistant genes. Beside uropathogenic virulence determinants, they carried the adhesion factors mediating biofilm production which was remarkably higher in 6 MP-CRE and one MNP-CRE isolates. Although the CRE were of diverse origin including the healthy and the diseased dogs, these were more frequently isolated from canine pyometra. The MP-CRE harboured plasmids of IncF and IncA/C types. Phylo-type B1 was observed in 38% of the CR isolates, followed by A0 in 31% and rest were attributed to A1 and D1. The Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-PCR (ERIC-PCR) revealed that these isolates were genetically diverse and constituted of a heterogenous population. Detection of CRE in pet dogs despite the fact that carbapenems are not used in animals in India emphasizes the need for active surveillance to identify the transmission and dynamics of such pathogens in companion animals.

Application of Pomegranate by-Products in Muscle Foods: Oxidative Indices, Colour Stability, Shelf Life and Health Benefits.

In recent years, considerable importance is given to the use of agrifood wastes as they contain several groups of substances that are useful for development of functional foods. As muscle foods are prone to lipid and protein oxidation and perishable in nature, the industry is in constant search of synthetic free additives that help in retarding the oxidation process, leading to the development of healthier and shelf stable products. The by-products or residues of pomegranate fruit (seeds, pomace, and peel) are reported to contain bioactive compounds, including phenolic and polyphenolic compounds, dietary fibre, complex polysaccharides, minerals, vitamins, etc. Such compounds extracted from the by-products of pomegranate can be used as functional ingredients or food additives to harness the antioxidant, antimicrobial potential, or as substitutes for fat, and protein in various muscle food products. Besides, these natural additives are reported to improve the quality, safety, and extend the shelf life of different types of food products, including meat and fish. Although studies on application of pomegranate by-products on various foods are available, their effect on the physicochemical, oxidative changes, microbial, colour stabilizing, sensory acceptability, and shelf life of muscle foods are not comprehensively discussed previously. In this review, we vividly discuss these issues, and highlight the benefits of pomegranate by-products and their phenolic composition on human health.

Complete Genome Sequence of Mycobacterium orygis Strain 51145.

We report the complete 4,352,172-bp genome sequence of Mycobacterium orygis strain 51145 assembled into a single circular chromosome. Comparative genomic analyses with other lineages of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex can provide insights into the biology, evolution, and epidemiology of this important group of pathogenic mycobacteria.

Reconsidering Mycobacterium bovis as a proxy for zoonotic tuberculosis: a molecular epidemiological surveillance study.

BACKGROUND: Zoonotic tuberculosis is defined as human infection with Mycobacterium bovis. Although globally, India has the largest number of human tuberculosis cases and the largest cattle population, in which bovine tuberculosis is endemic, the burden of zoonotic tuberculosis is unknown. The aim of this study was to obtain estimates of the human prevalence of animal-associated members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) at a large referral hospital in India. METHODS: We did a molecular epidemiological surveillance study of 940 positive mycobacteria growth indicator tube (MGIT) cultures, collected from patients visiting the outpatient department at Christian Medical College (Vellore, India) with suspected tuberculosis between Oct 1, 2018, and March 31, 2019. A PCR-based approach was applied to subspeciate cultures. Isolates identified as MTBC other than M tuberculosis or as inconclusive on PCR were subject to whole-genome sequencing (WGS), and phylogenetically compared with publicly available MTBC sequences from south Asia. Sequences from WGS were deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information Sequence Read Archive, accession number SRP226525 (BioProject database number PRJNA575883). FINDINGS: The 940 MGIT cultures were from 548 pulmonary and 392 extrapulmonary samples. A conclusive identification was obtained for all 940 isolates; wild-type M bovis was not identified. The isolates consisted of M tuberculosis (913 [97·1%] isolates), Mycobacterium orygis (seven [0·7%]), M bovis BCG (five [0·5%]), and non-tuberculous mycobacteria (15 [1·6%]). Subspecies were assigned for 25 isolates by WGS, which were analysed against 715 MTBC sequences from south Asia. Among the 715 genomes, no M bovis was identified. Four isolates of cattle origin were dispersed among human sequences within M tuberculosis lineage 1, and the seven M orygis isolates from human MGIT cultures were dispersed among sequences from cattle. INTERPRETATION: M bovis prevalence in humans is an inadequate proxy of zoonotic tuberculosis. The recovery of M orygis from humans highlights the need to use a broadened definition, including MTBC subspecies such as M orygis, to investigate zoonotic tuberculosis. The identification of M tuberculosis in cattle also reinforces the need for One Health investigations in countries with endemic bovine tuberculosis. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Canadian Institutes for Health Research.

Genomic Identity of Fluoroquinolone-Resistant blaCTX-M-15-Type ESBL and pMAmpC ß-Lactamase Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae from Buffalo Milk, India.

We investigated the occurrence of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC-type ß-lactamase (ACBL) producing quinolone-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP) in milk samples of apparently healthy buffaloes (n = 348) and buffaloes (n = 19) with evidence of subclinical mastitis from seven districts of West Bengal, India. In total, 12 ESBL producing KP were isolated with blaCTX-M-15 gene and 7 of them were ACBL producers, as well. The blaCTX-M-15 genes were carried by transposable element ISEcp1. The plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes-qnrS, qnrA, qnrB, qepA, and aac(6')-Ib-cr were detected in five, one, three, four, and one isolate (s), respectively. In addition, eight isolates carried mutation in gyrase (gyrA) and six in topoisomerase IV (parC). Resistance markers/genes for sulfonamide (sul1), tetracycline [tet(A) and tet(B)], and aminoglycoside (aacC2) were also detected in eight, four, and one isolate(s), respectively. The class I integrons identified in five isolates carried aad2/aad5 and dfrA12/dfrA17 gene cassettes. The enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-PCR revealed that all the isolates were genetically diverse and comprised a heterogeneous population. Isolation of multidrug-resistant KP, a typical nosocomial pathogen from buffalo milk, reiterates the need to monitor farm animals for ESBL producing Enterobacteriaceae and emphasizes on judicious use of antibiotics in animal husbandry sector.

Prevalence of paratuberculosis in organized and unorganized dairy cattle herds in West Bengal, India.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence pattern of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, the causative agent of paratuberculosis or Johne's disease, in unorganized as well as organized cattle herds in West Bengal. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Four organized cattle farms with identical management practice in Nadia (n=3) and South 24 Parganas (n=1) districts and three unorganized cattle herds, one each from three districts, namely, Burdwan, North 24 Parganas, and Purba Midnapur, were selected randomly and screened for paratuberculosis by delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Of 191 animals tested by DTH, 57 (29.8%) were found to be positive in comparison to 72 (37.7%) by ELISA. In organized farms, seropositivity varied from 13.3% to 53.1%, whereas in unorganized sector, it ranged from 5% to 6.7% with one area having exceptionally high prevalence, i.e. 53.3%. The range of positivity detected by DTH both in organized farms and backyard sectors varied from 0% to 46.7%. By employing both DTH and ELISA together, the positivity of animals in organized and unorganized herds was 19.9% and 8%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that animals in organized farms are much more prone to paratuberculosis than others. For screening the herd, both DTH and ELISA should be used simultaneously to increase the test sensitivity in order to minimize its further spread adopting control programs.

First Report on Vancomycin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Bovine and Caprine Milk.

The present investigation was carried out to study the vancomycin resistance pattern of Staphylococcus aureus isolates (n = 274) obtained from 352 milk samples of bovine (269) and caprine (63) clinical and subclinical mastitis from different districts of West Bengal, India. Of them, seven isolates (vancomycin-resistant S. aureus [VRSA] 1-7) exhibited resistance to vancomycin. Minimum inhibitory concentration of vancomycin (MICvan) for VRSA2 and VRSA3 was ≥16 µg/ml; thus categorized as VRSA. For rest of the isolates, MICvan was 8 µg/ml and they were grouped as vancomycin intermediate S. aureus (VISA). Even though all the isolates were resistant to cefoxitin and oxacillin and possessed mecA gene, none of them carried vancomycin resistance gene. Furthermore, all the seven isolates were subjected to Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing, Staphylococcal protein A (spa) typing, and enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus polymerase chain reaction. All the isolates except VRSA3 and VRSA4 from Kolkata district exhibited diverse genetic lineage, irrespective of their host and antibiotic resistance pattern. These two isolates showed clonal similarity (MRSA-SCCmec-V-spa t267) with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains previously reported in human and animal infection. Isolation of VRSA and VISA could probably be due to intensive use of vancomycin in healthcare premises, which might have led to the development of glycopeptide-resistant strains and thereafter, further disseminated in the environment, including livestock farms. Detection of VRSA in milk is a serious concern as it may further cause health problems in the consumers. This is the first ever report of VRSA in food animals, even though the pathogen is otherwise prevalent in humans.

Development of a recombinant flagellin based ELISA for the detection of Clostridium chauvoei.

Blackleg, an economically important and highly fatal disease of ruminants, is caused by anaerobic bacillus, Clostridium chauvoei. Identification and differentiation of the causative agent is crucial for implementation of therapeutic and control measures in real time. Most of the diagnostic tests available for blackleg are PCR based, and only a couple of serological tests have been reported. In this study, we targeted flagellin, an important immunogenic protein of C. chauvoei, to develop a sandwich ELISA for detection of C. chauvoei. Sequence analysis of flagellin gene of related Clostridium species showed that central region of flagellin gene is unique to C. chauvoei. Hence, we cloned and expressed central region of flagellin in a prokaryotic expression system. Antiserum against recombinant flagellin was generated in rabbits and chickens. A sandwich ELISA was developed, in which rabbit anti-flagellin antibodies were used as capture antibodies and chicken anti-flagellin antibodies as detecting antibodies. The test was specific and sensitive in detection of up to 10(4) CFU/ml of C. chauvoei. This study shows that assay developed can be used for detection of C. chauvoei in suspected samples.

Co-infection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and extended spectrum ß-lactamase producing Escherichia coli in bovine mastitis--three cases reported from India.

Emergence of antimicrobial resistance among bovine mastitis pathogens is the major cause of frequent therapeutic failure and a cause of concern for veterinary practitioners. This study describes intra-mammary infection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (MRSE), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and extended spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli in two Holstein Friesian crossbred cows with subclinical mastitis and one non-descript cow with clinical mastitis in two different districts of West Bengal, India. In total, three MRSE, one MRSA and three ESBL producing E. coli were isolated from these cases. Both the crossbreds were detected with MRSE (HFSE1 and HFSE2) and ESBL producing E. coli (HFEC1 and HFEC2), whereas, simultaneous infection of three pathogens viz. MRSA (NDSA1), MRSE (NDSE1) and ESBL producing E. coli (NDEC1) was found in the non-descript cow. The methicillin-resistant isolates possessed mecA gene and exhibited resistance to various antibiotics such as amikacin, tetracycline and glycopeptides. The ESBL producers were positive for blaCTX-M and blaTEM genes; in addition, HFEC1 and HFEC2 were positive for blaSHV and possessed the genes for class I integron (int1), sulphonamide resistance (sul1), quinolone resistance (qnrS) and other virulence factors (papC, iucD and ESTA1). All the ESBL producers exhibited resistance to a variety of antibiotics tested including third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins and were also intermediately resistant to carbapenems. This is the first ever report on simultaneous occurrence of MRSE, MRSA and ESBL producing E. coli in bovine mastitis indicating a major concern for dairy industry and public health as well.

Molecular and phylogenetic characterization of multidrug resistant extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Escherichia coli isolated from poultry and cattle in Odisha, India.

The present study was undertaken to determine the occurrence and characterization of extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli isolated from cattle and poultry in Odisha, India. Of 316 E. coli isolated from 305 samples (170 fecal samples from poultry and 135 milk samples from cattle), a total of 18 E. coli isolates were confirmed as ESBL producers by combination disc method and ESBL E-test. The isolates were resistant to oxyimino cephalosporins and monobactam as revealed by disc diffusion assay and determination of minimum inhibitory concentration. Resistance against other antibiotics was frequently noted as well. Further, beta-lactamase genes viz., blaSHV, blaCTXM, blaTEM and blaampC were detected in 17, 13, 9 and 2 isolates, respectively in PCR. Of the 18 ESBL strains, 16 were positive for class I integron (int1), nine of them carried sulphonamide resistance gene (sul1) and one harbored quinolone resistance gene (qnrB). Virulence markers for extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli like astA, tsh and iucD were also present in 4, 3 and 3 isolates, respectively. All the PCR amplified products were cloned and subjected to sequencing for homology analysis and data were submitted to gene bank. Sequence analysis of the amplified variable regions of class 1 integron of four representative isolates revealed the presence of aadA2 and dfrA12 gene cassettes conferring resistance to aminoglycosides and trimethoprim, respectively. Most of the ESBL producing strains emerged as single lineage through phylogenetic analysis by RAPD and ERIC PCR. This is the first ever systemic study on multidrug resistant ESBL producing E. coli in food producing animals from India.

Potential antibacterial activity of berberine against multi drug resistant enterovirulent Escherichia coli isolated from yaks (Poephagus grunniens) with haemorrhagic diarrhoea.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of berberine, a plant alkaloid. METHODS: Five multi-drug resistant (MDR) STEC/EPEC and five MDR ETEC isolates from yaks with haemorrhagic diarrhoea were selected for the study. Antibacterial activity of berberine was evaluated by broth dilution and disc diffusion methods. The binding kinetics of berberine to DNA and protein was also enumerated. RESULTS: For both categories of enterovirulent Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolates, berberine displayed the antibacterial effect in a dose dependent manner. The MIC(50) of berberine chloride for STEC/EPEC isolates varied from 2.07 µM to 3.6 µM with a mean of (2.95 ± 0.33) µM where as for ETEC strains it varied from 1.75 to 1.96 µM with a mean of (1.87 ± 0.03) µM. Berberine bind more tightly with double helix DNA with Bmax and Kd of (24.68±2.62) and (357.8±57.8), respectively. Berberine reacted with protein in comparatively loose manner with Bmax and Kd of (18.9±3.83) and (286.2±113.6), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate clearly that berberine may serve as a good antibacterial against multi drug resistant E. coli.